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摘要：The Output Hypothesis proposes that language production can facilitate language learning in a number of ways. However, while early research into this theory provided a strong starting point for further research, it did not provide clear, long-term evidence of output's role in language acquisition. More recent research has addressed this problem by using simple writing task sequences in which output precedes input in order to maximize its role in noticing. Results have been encouraging. In this article, I summarize this research before going on to suggest ways in which teachers can utilize similar task sequences in order to create practical classroom techniques which encourage learners to notice holes in their own knowledge and gaps between their written ability and expert user texts. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This paper will describe pedagogical approaches for re-purposing an open educational resource (OER) designed and produced by the Deutsche Welle. This free online program, Deutsch Interaktiv, consists of authentic digital videos, slideshows and audio texts and gives a contemporary overview of the culture and language in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. The program was designed for the public domain and primarily for self-study and focused on developing the students' listening and reading skills. However, we will describe how in this study, the OER program was integrated into college credit courses for elementary German at the University of Pennsylvania to provide the themes and grammar topics for live online class sessions and out-of-class asynchronous assignments, which included the use of blogs for essays, Facebook for shorter written assignments and Wimba Voiceboards for oral practice. In addition, this article will show how Deutsch Interaktiv ultimately influenced educational practice in the online classroom and within the context of interactionist learning theories. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This study examines the effects of interactive versus simultaneous display of visual and verbal multimedia information on incidental vocabulary learning and reading comprehension of learners of English with lower proficiency levels. In the interactive display condition, learners were allowed to select the type of multimedia information whereas the simultaneous display condition presented the verbal (definitions) and visual (associated pictures) information in a single gloss. Eighty-two students were randomly assigned to the treatment conditions and were asked to read an annotated expository text. Reading comprehension was measured through a recall protocol and a multiple-choice test. Incidental vocabulary learning was measured through unannounced vocabulary tests of form recognition, meaning production, definition match, and bilingual synonym match. T-tests and ANOVA analyses indicated that the participants utilized glosses less frequently when they were given the control over access to the type of multimedia information. In addition, simultaneous display of multimedia information led to better performance on reading and vocabulary tests. The results are in line with the contiguity principle of Generative Theory of Multimedia Learning, which posits that presenting verbal and visual information simultaneously reduces cognitive load and results in better learning. The findings have implications for both the development of multimedia materials for L2 learners and training of learners to interact with multimedia materials. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This commentary discusses some methodological innovations and challenges in testing two cognitive models of task-based instruction and learning: Robinson's Cognition Hypothesis (2001) and Skehan's Trade-Off Hypothesis (1998). My focus, in view of these models' key constructs, is the extent to which current methodological approaches are adequate to address the theoretical questions posed. I argue that there is a need for more extensive use of methods that can provide independent evidence of construct validity for the independent variables and causal processes invoked by the frameworks. By exploring some innovative task-based research and drawing on examples from other fields, I offer suggestions for improving our practices in future research. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Research has consistently shown there is a negative correlation between age of onset (AO) of acquisition and ultimate attainment (UA) of either pronunciation or grammar in a second language (L2). A few studies have indeed reported nativelike behavior in some postpuberty learners with respect to either phonetics/phonology or morphosyntax, a result that has sometimes been taken as evidence against the critical period hypothesis (CPH). However, in the few studies that have employed a wide range of linguistic tests and tasks, adult learners have not exhibited nativelike L2 proficiency across the board of measures, which, according to some, suggests that the hypothesis still holds. The present study investigated the relationship between AO and UA and the incidence of nativelikeness when measures of phonetic and grammatical intuition are combined. An additional aim was to investigate whether children and adults develop the L2 through fundamentally different brain mechanisms -- namely, whether children acquire the language (more) implicitly as an interdependent whole, whereas adults learn it (more) explicitly as independent parts of a whole. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This issue of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, which features six articles from the High-Level Proficiency in Second Language Use research program at Stockholm University, is introduced.

摘要：High-proficiency second language (L2) learners challenge much theory and methodology in contemporary sociolinguistic and L2 acquisition research, which suggests the need for honest interdisciplinarity when working in the interstices of style, stylization, and advanced acquisition processes. When to consider fluent and highly competent speakers of a language to be language learners in ways relevant to SLA theory is a fraught and contentious issue. This study suggests that highly fluent multilinguals provide key data on notions of nativelikeness and near-nativelikeness that are of value for understanding processes of acquisition and use. It suggests that relative judgments of nativelikeness are interactionally accomplished (membership) categorizations made on the basis of specific linguistic features relative to particular linguistic markets. The data for the study are taken from a unique population -- namely, young people from multilingual family backgrounds, born and raised in Sweden, all of whom ethnically self-identify as Assyrian-Syrian but whose repertoires are complexly multilingual. All participants are generally perceived to be native speakers of Swedish on a daily basis. Nevertheless, at certain moments, these young people are reclassified as near-native or nativelike. The study analyzes their narrative accounts of metalinguistic reflexivity from occasions and interactional moments when they are classified as nonstandard speakers and, therefore, near-natives or learners. The findings suggest the necessity of revisiting notions of nativelikeness and account for the phenomenon in terms of register, voice, and identity relative to different symbolic and linguistic markets. Adapted from the source document

摘要：According to generative linguistic theory, certain principles underlying language structure are innately given, accounting for how children are able to acquire their mother tongues (L1s) despite a mismatch between the linguistic input and the complex unconscious mental representation of language that children achieve. This innate structure is referred to as Universal Grammar (UG); it includes universal principles, as well as parameters which allow for constrained variation across languages. Adapted from the source document

摘要：After explaining why consideration of the use of technology in second language (L2) teaching in the primary and secondary sectors is necessary, this systematic review presents a keyword map of 117 studies of technology in L2 learning since 1990. It reveals that research effort in these educational sectors has increased in line with technological developments and there have been important differences between the primary and secondary sectors in the adoption of applications. There then follows an in-depth review of 47 post-2000 studies investigating the efficacy of technology in the teaching of L2 English. It asks what technology has been used and why, what evidence there is that technology facilitates language learning, and what other insights can be drawn from the research in this field. The evidence that technology has a direct beneficial impact on linguistic outcomes is slight and inconclusive, but it may impact indirectly and positively on learner attitudes and behaviours and may promote collaboration. On the whole, the research reviewed lacked the quality that would reassure practitioners and policy-makers that technological investment is warranted. We argue that future research needs to provide a tighter link between technological applications, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theory, and learning outcomes. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Oxford, noting that "L2 learning strategies are the learner's goal-directed actions for improving language proficiency or achievement, completing a task, or making learning more efficient, more effective, and easier," presents a timeline that classifies ideas and publications according to the eight major themes of (1) effectiveness, (2) models and theories, (3) instruction, (4) assessment, (5) language-area instruction, (6) factors, (7) technology, and (8) caveats. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Introduces a special journal issue on the subject. The authors discuss the practical and theoretical reasons for studying variability in immersion and proficiency in second languages.

摘要：A conceptual replication of Izumi and Bigelow's research, this study used multiple measures to investigate second language (L2) learners' processes in output-input-output sequences. Specifically, it examined whether producing the target language impacts learners' attention to L2 structures in subsequent input. Thirty learners of English as a second language were randomly assigned to two experimental groups (EGs) and a control group (CG). The EGs were given opportunities for written output that elicited either the past or the present hypothetical-conditional (more complex vs. less complex structures) while the CG was not prompted to produce output requiring the use of the target structures. All groups engaged in follow-up reading and underlining activities. The input text modeled targetlike use of the relevant structure for the EGs. Subsequently, all participants produced a second essay and participated in a stimulated recall interview. While the quantitative underlining and test data did not support an effect of output (EGs vs. CG) on specific attention to grammar in subsequent text, the qualitative stimulated-recall data revealed how output influences learners' subsequent noticing of vocabulary and/or awareness of their linguistic limitations concerning grammar structures. Learning was greater with the more complex structure, which is discussed in light of the noticing hypothesis and information processing theory. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This paper highlights the concept of Foreign Language Aptitude (FLA). While FLA originally presumed a relatively stable talent for learning a foreign language that differs between individuals, the question of whether FLA is innate or amenable to training has become a departure point for most research in this field. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The past few decades have witnessed a growing interest in how second language (L2) learners come to read in languages employing non-alphabetic writing systems such as Chinese and Japanese and languages employing non-Roman alphabetic systems such as Arabic and Hebrew. Indeed, with efforts afoot to begin more programs in these languages at the K-12 and collegiate levels, in immersion and bilingual settings, and with stated goals for students to eventually attain high levels in reading proficiency, an understanding of this research is critical if program development is to go forward in a principled way. This article discusses some of the theoretical developments that have helped illuminate the cross-orthographic reading process and reports on the relevant research in L2 cross-orthographic reading that has shaped our understanding of the issues involved in learning to read in languages that employ non-Roman alphabetic, logographic, and syllabary systems of writing. The article will also discuss teaching implications, strategies, and classroom practice put forth by reading practitioners, many of which have yet to find consensus. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Theoretical, empirical, and practical interest in pragmatic competence and development for second language (L2) learners has resulted in a large body of literature on teaching L2 pragmatics. This body of literature has diverged into two major domains: (a) a group of experimental studies directly testing the efficacy of various instructional methods in pragmatics learning and (b) research that explores optimal instructional practice and resources for pragmatic development in formal classroom settings. This article reviews literature in these two domains and aims at providing a collective view of the available options for pragmatics teaching and the ways that pragmatic development can best be promoted in the classroom. In the area of instructional intervention, this article reviews studies under the common theoretical second language acquisition paradigms of explicit versus implicit instruction, input processing instruction, and skill acquisition and practice. In the area of classroom practice and resources, three domains of research and pedagogical practices are reviewed: material development and teacher education, learner strategies and autonomous learning, and incidental pragmatics learning in the classroom. Finally, this article discusses unique challenges and opportunities that have been embraced by pragmatics teaching in the current era of poststructuralism and multiculturalism. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This paper tests the predictions of the vocabulary-tuning model of second language (L2) rephonologization in the domain of L2 segmental production. This model proposes a facilitating effect of adults' L2 vocabulary expansion on L2 perception and production and suggests that early improvements in L2 segmental production may be positively associated with an expanding L2 vocabulary. The model was tested in a study of the L2 vowel intelligibility of adult Japanese learners of Australian English, who differed only in the size of their L2 vocabularies. The results support the predicted association between L2 vocabulary size and L2 vowel intelligibility and the prediction that early-phase L2 vocabulary expansion leads to improved L2 production. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This study modeled vocabulary trajectories in 91 English language learners (ELLs) with Punjabi, Tamil, or Portuguese home languages, and 50 English monolinguals (EL1) from Grades 1 to 6. The concurrent and longitudinal relationships between phonological awareness and phonological short-term memory and vocabulary were examined. ELLs underperformed EL1s on vocabulary across all grades. Although vocabulary grew faster in ELLs than in EL1s in the primary grades, they did not close the gap after 6 years of English schooling. Mutual facilitation was found between phonological awareness, English-like nonwords, and vocabulary. A unidirectional relationship was found between Hebrew-like nonwords and vocabulary suggesting that the relationship between phonological short-term memory and vocabulary can be more accurately captured when using nonwords based on a remote, unfamiliar language. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This study examines the placement of finite and nonfinite lexical verbs and finite light verbs (LVs) in semispontaneous production and elicited imitation of adult beginning learners of German and French. Theories assuming nonnativelike syntactic representations at early stages of development predict variable placement of lexical verbs and consistent placement of LVs, whereas theories assuming nativelike syntax predict variability for nonfinite verbs and consistent placement of all finite verbs. The results show that beginning learners of German have consistent preferences only for LVs. More advanced learners of German and learners of French produce and imitate finite verbs in more variable positions than nonfinite verbs. This is argued to support a structure-building view of second-language development. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Vygotsky's work on the acquisition of foreign language words has been criticized for lacking a formal view of language as a system and for taking little interest in questions such as the route and rate of language acquisition. We argue that word meanings really do not constitute a formal system, either in the way they develop, or in the way they are deployed. They may, of course, be taught that way, but we present evidence from a partial replication of Slimani (1992) that they are not, in fact, acquired that way. Instead, foreign language word meanings appear to be palimpsests of different layers of meaning: iconic, indexical, and, ultimately, symbolic and signifying. It seems likely that because of the role of volition in uptake, no fixed route or rate in vocabulary acquisition will ever be found. Sociocultural theory, however, offers a historical understanding of the roots and ranges of foreign language word meanings that is, we argue, more valuable in the end. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The present study examined the effectiveness of mechanical and meaningful production of output on the learning of English relative clauses by Iranian EFL learners. The study involved two groups of learners (N = 36) who completed a pre-test, three activities and a post-test over an 8-week period. The collaborative dialogue of the participants was tape-recorded and transcribed. The results of the tests showed that both groups made significant progress from pre-test to post-test and they did not differ significantly in their gains on the target linguistic forms, suggesting that both contexts contributed to the learning of English relative clauses. Findings from the tape-recorded data, however, indicated that there was a significant relationship between activity type and number of language-related episodes (LREs): the more meaningful activities elicited significantly more LREs compared to the more mechanical activities. Furthermore, there was a significant relationship between the gains of learners who scored below the average on the pre-test and the number of LREs they produced. [Copyright Elsevier Ltd.]